Abstract

In this paper we discuss the theoretical linguistic and gra-

phic preconditions of the design of PASS, a glyph system

which we designed for use in Augmentative and Alternative

Communication (AAC) habilitative practices that has been

released under open source licence.

We highlight the relevance of graphic design supporting

sustainable practices for people with Autism Spectrum Di-

sorders (ASD), in a context in which the offer of public heal-

thcare services for rehabilitation is insufficient.

We present the context in which the AAC is adopted and

how a glyph system can be used by people with ASD to learn

a language. Tis particular group of users can access a lan-

guage by using the glyph system as an interlanguage or as an

alternative language.

We analyse the most common glyph systems (ARSAAC,

PCS, WLS, Blissymbolics), highlighting their strengths and

weaknesses from a graphic and linguistic point of view.

We present the theoretical background of the design process

for the PASS glyph system.

Inmaterial 08. Giulia Bonora, Giampiero Dalai, Daniele De Rosa, Marta Panunzi,

Luciano Perondi, Cecilia Rubertelli.

Artículo original

In particular, we provide an in-depth description of the gra-

phic design strategy, which aims to develop a systematic and

consistent approach to the construction of the glyphs. Tis

approach is grounded in a reflection on how to solve the lin-

guistic problems raised by the valency model and Chomsky’s

generative grammar theory in the visual domain.

We have designed the core of the glyph system by detecting

the pertinent visual and linguistic variables in literature,

with the objective of developing the system for clinical expe-

rimentation.

Keywords:

augmentative and alternative communication (AAC), glyph system, PASS,

habilitation, autism spectrum disorders (ASD)

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A new system for AAC habilitative practices, theoretical

background.

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Resumen

En este artículo se abordan los prerrequisitos teóricos, lin-

güísticos y gráficos del diseño de PASS; un sistema de gli-

fos proyectado por los autores para su uso en las prácticas

habilitadoras de Comunicación Aumentativa y Alternativa

(CAA), que ha sido lanzado bajo una licencia de código

abierto.

Se pone de manifiesto la relevancia del diseño gráfico como

apoyo a las prácticas sostenibles para personas con Trastor-

nos del Espectro Autista (TEA), en un contexto en el que

la oferta de servicios de rehabilitación del sistema sanitario

público es insuficiente.

Se presenta el contexto en el que se adopta el CAA y cómo

un sistema de glifos puede ser utilizado por personas con

TEA para aprender un idioma; este grupo particular de

usuarios puede acceder a un idioma utilizando el sistema de

glifos como un interlenguaje o como un idioma alternativo.

Se analizan los sistemas de glifos más comunes (Arasaac,

Pcs, Wls, Blissymbolics) destacando sus fortalezas y debili-

dades desde el punto de vista gráfico y lingüístico.

Se presentan los antecedentes teóricos del proceso de pro-

yecto gráfico para el sistema de glifos PASS.

Inmaterial 08. Giulia Bonora, Giampiero Dalai, Daniele De Rosa, Marta Panunzi,

Luciano Perondi, Cecilia Rubertelli.

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Y, por último, y muy especialmente, se describe en profundi-

dad la estrategia de diseño gráfico seguida y cuyo propósito

es llevar a la práctica la construcción de los glifos respon-

diendo a un enfoque sistemático y regular; este enfoque

parte de la reflexión sobre cómo gestionar, utilizando he-

rramientas visuales, los problemas que emergen del mo-

delo Valencial y de la teoría de la Gramática Generativa de

Chomsky.

Es importante considerar que la estructura principal del sis-

tema de glifos ha sido proyectada identificando en la litera-

tura científica las variables visuales y lingüísticas fundamen-

tales, con el objetivo de desarrollar un sistema que estuviese

intrínsecamente preparado para la experimentación clínica.

Palabras clave:

comunicación aumentativa y alternativa (CAA), sistema de glifos, PASS,

habilitación, trastornos del espectro autista (TEA)

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Te paper was writen collaboratively by the authors. Specifically:

1. Te urgent need for subsidiary healthcare practices. (G. Dalai, L. Perondi, C. Rubertelli)

1.1. Visual strategies for improving communication (G. Dalai, C. Rubertelli)

1.2. Books in symbols (or rather, glyphs) (G. Dalai, L. Perondi, C. Rubertelli)

2. Te importance of AAC as a means to access language and reading-writing competences. Goals and critical

aspects. (G. Dalai, M. Panunzi, L. Perondi, C. Rubertelli)

3. Analysis of the current systems supporting AAC (G. Bonora, G. Dalai, D. De Rosa, L. Perondi)

3.1. Analysis of PCS (Picture Communication Symbols) (G. Bonora, D. De Rosa)

3.2. Analysis of ARSAAC (ARgonés Sistemas Aumentativos y Alternativos de Comunicación) (G.

Bonora, D. De Rosa)

3.3. Analysis of WLS (Widgit Literacy Symbols) (G. Bonora, D. De Rosa)

3.4. Analysis of Blissymbolics (G. Bonora, D. De Rosa)

4. Building a new AAC system suitable for empirical experimentation. A linguistic and visual design perspective.

(G. Dalai, L. Perondi, C. Rubertelli)

5. Linguistic background (C. Rubertelli, M. Panunzi)

5.1. Towards a generative syntax of glyphs (L. Perondi, C. Rubertelli)

5.2. Agglutination (G. Dalai, D. De Rosa, L. Perondi)

6. Graphic background (G. Dalai, L. Perondi)

7. Te pictographic aspects of glyph design, the study of pictographic composition (G. Dalai, L. Perondi)

7.1. Te graphic implications of designing a system of glyphs (G. Bonora, G. Dalai, D. De Rosa, L. Perondi)

7.2. Atribution of visual variables (Bertin, 2011, p. 42) (G. Bonora, G. Dalai, D. De Rosa, L. Perondi)

7.3. Hierarchy and hierarchical distance (G. Dalai)

8. Future developments. A methodology for the development of glyph systems for clinical habilitation practices.

(G. Dalai, D. De Rosa, M. Panunzi, L. Perondi)

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1. The urgent need for subsidiary healthcare practices

Given the current state of healthcare, there is an urgent need for habilitating

and rehabilitating practices which are subsidiary to hospital care and public

services.

Communication design can play a fundamental role in the development of

artefacts supporting habilitation and rehabilitation practices for people with

Complex Communication Needs (CCN), and particularly those with Autism

Spectrum Disorders (ASD).

Currently there are both rehabilitation practices (e.g. Augmentative and

Alternative Communication - AAC; ASHA, 2018) and supports for the ASD

diagnostic practice (e.g. Psycho-Educational Profile - PEP-R; Schopler and

Reichler, 1979; SINPIA, 2018, p. 22) (Fig. 1) in which graphical elements

play a fundamental role (see for example National Autistic Society, 2019;

Mirenda and Iacono, 2009).

Fig. 1. Example of images (pictograms)

which are used for ASD diagnostic purposes,

displayed in the PEP-R diagnostic manual.

Images retrieved from Schopler and Reichler

(1979, pp. 171, 175).

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In addition, the interfaces of medical instruments impact the ability of health-

care personnel to use such instruments efficiently; therefore, in this context,

visual design issues play a pivotal role.

In particular, rehabilitation practices which involve AAC instruments, the

reading of books and communication boards are in widespread use and are

well known for their utility (Costantino, 2011; SINPIA, 2018, pp. 65-68;

Iacono and Cameron, 2009; Chung, Carter and Sisco, 2012).

In Italy, these kinds of practices increasingly involve families and accredited

private structures. Te lack of shared diagnostic and therapeutic protocols

among local healthcare units and regions results in a fragmented offer of pu-

blic healthcare services and an overall lack of assistance for people with ASD

and their families (Chiaroti, Calamandrei and Venerosi, 2017, pp. 3, 13-14).

In order to ensure the sustainability of this kind of therapeutic model, it is of

the utmost importance to develop instruments that support communication

between patients and caregivers. Tere is a need for communication that does

not vanish when people with Complex Communication Needs (CCN) reach

the age of majority, a time when the relationship between the families of people

with ASD and the school system disappears. Tere is also a severe lack of

appropriate rehabilitation programmes in Italy for adolescents and adults with

psychiatric conditions (Chiaroti, Calamandrei and Venerosi, 2017, pp. 14-15).

In this context, a key point is providing lower-income families with the correct

and fundamental self-production tools and competences for the fabrication of

communication boards and other instruments for rehabilitation practices.

Te aim of our research is therefore to develop a system of glyphs by fo-

llowing an approach based on design and scientific research, in order to ena-

ble the control of graphic composition aspects and to test the effectiveness of

design choices.

In this article, we will discuss and propose our hypothesis on which compo-

sition criteria should be used while developing a set of symbols. We take into

account the visual features of the elements which constitute the symbols and

how a specific language (Italian, in this case) interacts with the graphic design

choices and how it affects the syntactic-semantic organisation of the symbol

system.

From now on, we will be using the word “glyphs”, instead of the term “sym-

bols” (which is commonly used in related literature). In some semiotics

research areas (see Peirce, 2003), the term “symbols” is defined as a “sign with

an abstract relation to the meaning.” Moreover, in some areas of pedagogy

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(see for example Piaget, 1950; Bruner, 1967; Bruner, 1984) which are closely

related to our argumentations, the locution “symbolic thinking” is related to

abstract and metaphoric thinking.

Terefore, the term “symbol” is ambiguous and may lead to misconception.

Instead, we use the term “glyph” to refer solely to the visual shape of a sign as

this term is used by Te Unicode Consortium (Unicode, 2004), which is de-

voted to establishing the standards for the codification of writen languages.

1.1. Visual strategies for improving communication

As Hogdon (2004) describes, with the locution “visual strategies for impro-

ving communication” we define a group of tools which enhance the ability of

children to understand and interpret information.

On an everyday basis, children with CCN and ASD use visual supports

which are tailored to the subject’s specific condition.

Among these tools, some of the most commonly used in habilitation and

rehabilitation practice are communication boards, labels for objects and envi-

ronments, and activity timetables (National Autistic Society, 2019).

Communication boards are structured collections of glyphs which allow

children to express their needs, feelings and thoughts. Te boards are tailored

to each individual and their aim is to enhance the children’s communicative

competence and social interaction (Costantino, 2011).

Beukelman and Mirenda (2014) show how the most common communica-

tion boards display a grid layout, which is organised according to different

structures:

— semantic-syntactic: in the original version from Fitzgerald,

pictograms are organised by following a precise semantic-syntactic

sequence from lef to right: who (substantives), actions (verbs),

modifiers (adjectives, etc.), what (complements), where, when, etc.

(Beukelman and Mirenda, 2014, p. 361) (Fig. 2);

— taxonomic: the pictograms are organised by semantic categories,

e.g. people, places, feelings, etc.; or

— by activity: the pictograms are organised by following a scheme

pertaining to a specific activity or routine.

Te most commonly used communication boards are the “main boards”

(Fig. 3), namely those which include the “essential core or the vocabulary of

the child with CCN” (Costantino, 2011, p. 73).

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Fig. 2. Detail of a board based on a seman-

tic-syntactic structure. Image retrieved from

Beukelman and Mirenda, 2014, p. 361.

Fig. 3. An example of a child’s main board

used for eliciting communication interac-

tions. Image courtesy of Elisabeta Cane,

speech and language therapist.

Fig. 4. An example of drawer labelling. Te

drawers contain cutlery (“posate”) and

a tablecloth (“tovaglia”). Image courtesy

of Elisabeta Cane, speech and language

therapist.

Fig. 5. A child’s activity timetable. Te

cards list the activities which the child will

complete during the rehabilitative session.

Image courtesy of Sara Scoto, speech and

language therapist.

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Te labelling of environments with pictograms (Hodgon, 2004) aims to des-

cribe the environment through a communication system that is well known

to the child, and which they can exploit to navigate the environment without

feeling insecure or anxious. Te pictograms are stuck on an object in order to

identify it, or on a container to identify its contents (Fig. 4).

Te activity timetables (Costantino, 2011, p. 65) allow caregivers to describe

the schedule of activities, parts of the day, the whole day, weeks or longer pe-

riods. Teir aim is to highlight a routine, providing the children with a sense

of predictability of events (Fig. 5).

1.2 Books in symbols (or rather, glyphs)

As Costantino (2011, p. 76) describes, in order to facilitate access to reading

for children with CCN, starting in the late ‘90s rehabilitation practitioners in

Italy began using tailored “books with symbols”, which were built around the

needs of each child.

Tese books are mainly of two types (Costantino, 2011):

— reworked books: existing books which have been adapted to

make them more accessible (e.g. a streamlined version of Litle Red

Riding Hood, built with materials which allow the child to beter

interact with the book Fig. 6); or

— customised books: books that are built from scratch based on the

experience and needs of the child.

A large collection of reworked and customised books developed by specialist

personnel is available in the Special Library of Centro Benedeta d’Intino

Onlus, one of the most important Italian centres specialising in AAC.

More recently, new projects have emerged, which aim to transpose books

that are already available on the market into glyphs. Tese book series have

been publicly distributed in places such as libraries and local health depart-

ments (see for example the inbook library network, Costantino, 2011; Libri per

tuti, Fondazione Paideia, 2019). Several Italian publishers (Homeless Book,

Clavis, Erickson, Uovonero, Mondadori, Giunti, DeAgostini, GeMS) are

currently experimenting with traditional books and digital devices by produ-

cing glyph-based narrative books (Fig. 6, 7), while other publishers (Auxilia)

mainly focus on educational publications.

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2. The importance of AAC as a means to access language and

reading-writing competences. Goals and critical aspects.

As the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA, 2018)

describes, “Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) is an area

of clinical practice that addresses the needs of individuals with significant

and complex communication disorders characterised by impairments in

speech-language production and/or comprehension, including spoken and

writen modes of communication. AAC uses a variety of techniques and

tools, including picture communication boards, line drawings, Speech-Gene-

rating Devices (SGDs), tangible objects, manual signs, gestures, and fingers-

pelling, to help the individual express thoughts, wants and needs, feelings,

and ideas. AAC is augmentative when used to supplement existing speech,

and alternative when used in place of speech that is absent or not functional.

AAC may be temporary, as when used by patients postoperatively in intensive

care, or permanent, as when used by an individual who will require the use of

some form of AAC throughout his or her lifetime.”

With regard to the field of visual communication design, AAC makes use of

the visual mode with the aim of lowering the threshold for access to langua-

ge, facilitating the learning process for people who privilege this mode over

others.

Te end users of AAC (i.e. therapists, educators, people undergoing habi-

litating processes and their relatives and friends) can use this therapeutic

practice for a twofold purpose: as an (1) interlanguage, which can provide

access to linguistic competences pertaining to a specific linguistic region, and

as an (2) independent writing system, which provides access to language

competences tout court:

1. AAC can be used as an interlanguage.

An interlanguage (Giacalone Ramat, 2003) is a temporary linguistic

system which a learner adopts while trying to master an unknown

language. Tis system evolves constantly, and becomes richer when

the learner understands rules and structures. Te learner uses the

interlanguage as much as proper grammar for their learning and

language production.

2.AAC can be used as an independent writing system.

AAC can be used as an independent language, which means that it

is possible to communicate by using this system instead of Italian

or English. Tis means that the end users will utilise the glyphs

available in the writing system without referring directly to the

commonly used local language.

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In everyday practice, AAC is frequently supported by a communication

system, which is mostly a set of glyphs. As therapeutic practice with AAC is

tailored to individuals, there is currently no general consensus on the way the

AAC glyphs must be composed or the strategies of “translation in symbols”

(CSCA, 2015; Minardi, 2018). Tis is also evident in the analysis of the me-

thods for the transposition of texts in AAC carried out by the Italian publi-

shers mentioned in Section 1.2 Books in symbols (or rather, glyphs).

All the publishers we reviewed in Section 1.2 adopt a previously developed

pictographic system, which is ofen difficult to modify in its content and

visual composition, and also due to copyright.

Within this group of publishers, some follow a set of rules for the transposi-

tion of texts which is explicit and formal—In-book (Costantino, 2011), Libri

per tuti (Fondazione PAIDEIA, 2019), Homeless Book (Fare Leggere Tuti,

2017)—while others do not currently provide such a set of rules for compo-

sition, varying the transposition technique depending on the type of text.

Te In-book model transposes all the elements of a clause in glyphs, fo-

llowing a word-by-word approach. All the grammatical morphemes—which

are available to be transposed by the glyph composition system—are rende-

red visible and explicit.

Te Libri per tuti model is currently defined as “logic-semantic” (Fondazio-

ne Paideia, 2019, pp. 14-15); it focuses primarily on the semantic properties

of the clause and of the graphic signs, leting the alphabetic text interact with

the glyphs. Te alphabetic text is responsible for explicating the morphosyn-

tactic complexity of the Italian language.

ASD treatment programmes cannot be standardised as every rehabilitation

plan is tailored to the patient’s needs (SINPIA, 2018). Terefore, it is impor-

tant to allow for a variety of methods that can be used during rehabilitation

activities. On this point, we are highlighting (see Section 3) some problems

in the practical use of the most popular systems in Italy (CSCA, 2015; Cos-

tantino, 2011).

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3. Analysis of the current systems supporting AAC

AAC systems are simultaneously used by patients with ASD and their

communication partners (family, educators, friends and colleagues). Tere-

fore, the challenge in designing these systems lies in making them usable by

everyone involved in the communication process. Possibly due to this reason,

all the glyph systems we reviewed apart from Blissymbolics are mostly iconic.

We acknowledge that the obvious objective of the designers of these systems

is to lower the perceived threshold for typically developed users to access the

information conveyed by iconical glyphs. However, to our knowledge there

is no scientific proof that this feature actually makes understanding the glyph

semantics easier (Sevcik et al., 2018; Stephenson, 2009).

Tere are currently several AAC systems available on the market. In this arti-

cle we analyse the most commonly used in Italy (CSCA, 2015): Blissymbo-

lics, PCS, WLS and ARSAAC, with the objective of providing an overview

of the subject mater pertinent to our design reflections on AAC.

PCS, WLS and ARSAAC consist of a series of glyphs which represent

specific concepts or words (through depictions, metaphors and other visual

rhetorical strategies; for a discussion about visual rhetorical figures see Dalai,

Martini and Perondi, 2019). We could not find any evidence of regular or

consistent paterns behind their design or in their appearance.

For people with ASD, the lack of regularity in a system can be an insurmoun-

table obstacle to reading (Menyuk and Quill, 1985). Moreover, some of these

systems are mostly based on the English language, and therefore they follow

the structure of this language and contain no declension, no gender, no inflec-

tion, and no conjugation, which are, on the contrary, relevant in Italian. Con-

sequently, these systems need supplementary elements to work with Italian

and there is no general consensus on their usage (CSCA, 2015).

In all the systems, except Blissymbolics, the glyph is the basic articulation

(Martinet, 1949; Rossi-Landi, 2005, pp. 102-105); we cannot find a lower

level of articulation.

Te glyphs are ofen inscribed inside a “box” and are labelled using words

writen in the Latin alphabet (there is no consensus on the use-size-shape of

the box and on the position-case of the label; CSCA, 2015). Blissymbolics

differs significantly from the other systems, mainly because it shows a higher

number of articulations and because the glyphs are mostly non-pictographic.

Te glyphs of Blissymbolics consist of semi-finished parts which are joined

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together, similar to the various parts of leters (like the bowls of the “b” or “d”

leters). Te glyphs are the first articulation with a semantic value. When they

are combined together they make more semantic combinations: the clause.

In most cases, the glyphs of Blissymbolics appear to be abstract, and only in

some cases do they seem to have an iconic or analogical relation with their

meanings (Bliss, 1949).

For each of the following AAC systems, we propose an analysis of the regula-

rity features and the linguistic structure:

3.1. Analysis of PCS (Picture Communication Symbols)

PCS, is a set of colour and black-and-white drawings originally developed by

Mayer-Johnson Company for AAC (Costantino, 2011).

Regularity: No regularity is evident in PCS.

Linguistic structure: Te system is used mainly to reproduce the clauses

word for word (CSCA, 2015) and therefore it requires some punctuation be-

tween the glyphs. Moreover, since PCS is based on English, the system does

not convey some specific elements of the Italian language in a straightforward

manner, such as the masculine or feminine genders of the nouns and articles

(CSCA, 2015).

3.2. Analysis of ARASAAC (ARAgonés Sistemas Aumentativos y

Alternativos de Comunicación)

ARSAAC (ARSAAC, 2019) is a set of colour and black-and-white

drawings developed in Spain and funded by the Spanish Government.

Regularity: ARSAAC is the only free and open source AAC system among

those we analysed. Tis is particularly relevant for the economic sustainability

of families. Tanks to this level of freedom, the system is prone to triggering

some of the mechanisms of natural language, such as adaptability and flexi-

bility (see systolic and diastolic moments in Anceschi, 1992). Te drawback

is that the complete lack of composition rules may lead to a proliferation of

incoherent glyphs.

Linguistic structure: Composition, syntax and pictogram design is similar to

PCS.

3.3. Analysis of WLS (Widgit Literacy Symbols)

WLS (Widgit, 2019) is a set of colour and black-and-white drawings develo-

ped in the UK by a company called Widgit.

Regularity: Several graphical elements show some degree of regularity in

their depiction, such as the shape of full-bodied humans, the arrows and

some other markers (dashes, dots etc.).

Linguistic structure: WLS can represent grammatical morphemes of the va-

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rious parts of speech by using a set of graphical elements (Costantino, 2011).

On the other hand, there is no evidence of semantic coherence between

glyphs and grammatical elements. For example, the same arrow may be used

in the same size, shape and position with a different meaning and orthogra-

phic function. For instance, the verb “disse” (“he said”, in Italian) includes an

arrow pointing to the lef that stands for the past tense, but many arrows exist

in other glyphs such as “ai” (“to the”, plural), “lo” (“it”, object pronoun), “farò”

(“I will do”) and “mai” (“never”). Each arrow has a different semantic and

morphographic function (sometimes it is used as a suffix, sometimes as a part

of the glyph).

3.4. Analysis of Blissymbolics

Blissymbolics (Bliss, 1949; BCI, 2004) was invented by Charles Bliss

between 1942 and 1949. Te system, which was called World Writing until

1942 and Semantography until 1947, became Bliss or Blissymbolics in 1965.

Regularity: Due to its internal strict consistency and its regularity, it has

proved to work well in habilitative or rehabilitative processes ( Jennische and

Zeterlund, 2015; Alant et al., 2013; Bornman et al., 2009). As emerged in

CSCA (2015), Blissymbolics has the most consistent glyphs, and its gram-

mar, orthography and syntax are much more refined than the other systems

in use in Italy.

Linguistic structure: Blissymbolics was an experiment that aimed to create

a Universal Language. It was inspired by the Chinese writing system, with

recognisable English language paterns in syntax and grammar (Bliss, 1949;

Eco, 1996).

While discussing with clinical operators how to choose the most appropriate

glyph system for habilitation practices, we detected a possible weak point in

the use of Blissymbolics: it can discourage the communication partners of

people with CCN (such as educationalists, therapists and families) due to its

abstract glyphs and peculiar grammar. It might seem difficult to learn for an

adult who perceives the access threshold to be too high.

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4. Building a new AAC system suitable for empirical

experimentation. A linguistic and visual design perspective.

Afer the analysis we carried out on the current pictographic systems suppor-

ting AAC, we based the design of PASS on the following general principles:

1. sustainability;

2. regularity; and

3. independence from a specific language (as much as possible), but

based on both the properties of language and the properties

of images.

Te design of the features of PASS is based on a deductive approach groun-

ded in literature. Our purpose is to design a glyph system in which the inde-

pendent variables of visual composition are evident and ready to be tested by

following an empirical and/or clinical approach.

By following a dynamic perspective ( Jezek, 2005, p. 18), we define as lexica-

lisation the process through which, in a particular language, a specific concept

is related to a form, allowing the speaker to create a new unprecedented word

(Talmy, 1985).

Te process of creation of graphic signs can be interpreted as a form of lexica-

lisation, but with traits that are peculiar to writing and image composition.

Te steps of this process are as follows:

1. Definition and design of the constituent traits: the glyphs are

built from constituent traits (Dalai, Martini, and Perondi, 2019).

2. Definition of pertinent and facultative variants (Eco, 2016):

some of the constituent traits are pertinent and they are

fundamental for the viewer to discern one glyph from another.

Other constituent traits contribute to the connotation and the

contextualisation of the glyph (Dalai, Martini, and Perondi, 2019).

We assume a certain amount of “iconical transparence” (Moles,

1972; Peirce, 2003; Anceschi, 1992), even though it is not relevant

for our purpose whether iconic images are unambiguous or purely

conventional (Eco, 1975; Lussu, 2003). Indeed, the debate on

iconism that involved Umberto Eco and Tomás Maldonado

(Polidoro, 2012; Maldonado, 2005) during the ‘60s did not reach a

solution.

3. Definition of coherence criteria: Our hypothesis is that the

glyphs enhance their function (i.e. the reader can disambiguate

them, recognise them, infer new glyphs and new combinations of

glyphs from reading them, and use them in different composition

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systems) if they are coherent with each other (by following

coherence criteria discussed previously in Dalai, Martini, and

Perondi, 2019; Bertin, 2011).

4. Definition of entaxis and sinsemia: the structure underlying

PASS is built upon two different levels of composition: (1) the

entaxis level (Vaillant, 1999), which refers to the non-linear

composition of the glyphs, i.e. the position of graphic elements

acquires semantic meaning; and (2) the synsemic level (Perondi

and Perri, 2018) which refers to the graphical composition of the

glyphs and their usage in a specific therapeutic seting (however, we

will not discuss the synsemic level further in this paper).

Our objective is to set up the basic entactic rules of PASS in order

to allow for different modes of composition (linear or non-linear,

agglutinant or analytical syntax; see Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2) which

adapt to different therapeutic approaches.

Given that the PASS system should prove flexible enough to be used in

several contexts (with typically developing children, with a caregiver reading

along with a child with ASD, etc.), the system is built to provide a solid basis

for subsequent syntactic stratifications.

5. Linguistic background

When approaching the subject of syntactic composition, first of all it is im-

portant to define what we mean by clause. For the purposes of our work, we

have mainly drawn upon Lucien Tesnière’s valency grammar, in which a clau-

se is defined as “a structure, that is, an organised system in which words are

mutually dependant on each other” (De Santis, 2012, p. 18; free translation

provided by the authors of this article). Within a clause, two orders coexist: a

superficial linear order, which corresponds to the sequence of words, and an

underlying hierarchical order, which consists in “the connections established

by our mind” (De Santis, 2012, p. 18). Together with the valency model, we

refer to Noam Chomsky’s generative grammar theory for that which con-

cerns how humans generate and understand languages, and the interaction

between semantics and syntaxis (Chomsky, 1989; Graffi, 2012). Without

focusing further on the more theoretical linguistics issues related to Tesnière

and Chomsky, in the next section we discuss our synthesis of these theories

and the design of glyph systems.

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5.1. Towards a generative syntax of glyphs

According to recent approaches to generative syntax (Graffi, 2012; Fras-

carelli, Ramaglia and Corpina, 2014), each clause consists of a three-layer

structure:

1. the first and deepest layer is that of lexical selection (or Verb

Phrase, VP);

2. this is followed by the inflectional layer (or Inflectional Phrase,

IP), that is, the level at which verbal inflection and the

morphosyntactic structuring of the clause occur; and

3. on the surface is the modality layer (or Complementiser Phrase,

CP), which is built around the clause introducer known as the

“Complementiser”.

Te VP layer (1) is the level at which the lexical selection of the verb occurs

and the thematic roles are assigned to its arguments. For example, in the sen-

tence “Luca eats an apple”, the verb “to eat” requires the presence of two argu-

ments (two-argument verb): the person who eats (Luca), which is assigned

the thematic role of AGENT (that is, a subject whose action is intentional),

and the thing that is eaten (the apple), which takes on the role of PATIENT

(that is, the passive recipient of the action). (See Puglielli, Frascarelli, 2008

for an in-depth analysis of the subject.)

Te IP layer (2) is where the traits related to grammatical information are

distributed, namely person agreement and tense, mood and aspect (TMA). It

is at this level that the universal deep structure acquires the properties that are

specific to each language. Finally, in the CP layer (3) the clause is completed

with the information related to discourse grammar and illocutionary force

(for some examples see Graffi, 2012, pp. 90-118, Fig. 12).

Fig. 12. Verb Phrase (VP), Inflectional

Phrase (IP) and Complementiser Phrase

(CP) layers and their interaction.

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Considering the properties inherent to the graphic code, we may hypothesise

that the glyph-based representation positions itself primarily on the first layer,

since it is strictly related to the semantic content. Let us consider for example

the clause “Luca fa la doccia” (“Luca has a shower”).

“Fare la doccia” (“to have a shower”) is a typical support verb construction,

in which “fare” has a limited semantic weight (light verb) and mainly serves

to express Luca’s agency, while also codifying the grammatical categories

that support the noun “doccia” (“shower”) on which the predicative force is

concentrated. As exemplified by the sentence above, the glyph does not rely

on the morphosyntactic layer, in which “have”—being the morphosyntactic

nucleus of the clause—would need to acquire the agreement traits; the glyph

is instead built at the VP level, that is, on the semantic portion, establishing as

it does a direct link with the conceptual content.

Fig. 13. PASS glyphs for the clause “Luca” “fa la doccia” (“Luca” “has a shower”).

Tanks to their range of iconic properties, glyphs therefore enable us to guide

the reader through the semantic nuclei without sacrificing morphosyntactic

specificities, which at this first level of representation rely on alphabetic text

(which constitutes the IP layer). In the context of shared reading, in which an

adult helps the child to interact with the glyphs (e.g. the “modelling” practi-

ce), the adult will convey the morphosyntactic complexity of the reference

language by reading the alphabetic text, while the child can visually engage

with the deep semantic content. In particular, the graphic properties of the

glyph enable the reader to achieve an even deeper level of synthesis, represen-

ting as they do both the AGENT and the action. Te deep semantic represen-

tation of a clause may therefore be expressed within a single glyph.

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Fig. 14. PASS glyphs “Luca fa la doccia” (“Luca has a shower”) and “Luca fa la doccia nudo”

(“Luca has a shower naked”), both are agglutinated.

Fig. 15. PASS glyphs for “Luca fa la doccia” (“Luca has a shower”) expressing the VP, IP and

CP layers.

However, for the purposes of achieving certain specific rehabilitative, didactic

or expressive goals, the connections inherent to the language may also need

expressing, so as to highlight, for example, the syntagmatic relationships

occurring between the different parts of a clause. In this case, the creation

of glyphs expressing elements such as determiners, prepositions, auxiliaries,

inflectional traits (e.g. TMA traits for verbs, and gender and number traits

for nouns) and complementisers would also enable the reader to interact at a

graphic level with the IP and CP layers.

5.2. Agglutination

As will be discussed further, it may therefore be beneficial to work on a

multi-layered system that makes it possible to modulate glyph representation

depending on the needs of the habilitative practice, moving between a strictly

semantic level (where glyphs are used in a more synthetic/agglutinating

way) and a morphosyntactic one (where a more analytical graphic structure

is used). In this article we do not discuss which of these two strategies is the

most effective; the objective of PASS is to provide clinicians with a tailored

instrument for clinical therapy and experimentation.

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Agglutination is “a grammatical process in which words are composed of a se-

quence of morphemes (meaningful word elements), each of which represents

not more than a single grammatical category” (Encyclopaedia Britannica,

2009). Examples of agglutinative languages include Japanese and Nahuatl. In

particular, Aztec writing, related to the Nahuatl language, “spells” agglutinative

words by agglutinating the glyphs (mostly pictograms). Terefore, we use the

term “agglutination” because we grounded PASS on the Aztec writing system.

Fig. 16. Aztec glyph “tepetl”, forming different agglutinating glyphs. Redesigned by the author Daniele De Rosa.

In PASS, the definition of a set of minimum units (types of morphemes)

allows them to be modified and combined to systematically design a large

amount of glyphs. Tis also occurs, for example, in Blissymbolics, where the

meaning is generated through the combination of different minimum units

and indicators. Tis process can be purely combinatorial, such as Blissym-

bolics, or involve plastic modifications of the basic elements, such as in the

Aztec writing system. PASS atempts to use both processes. For example, the

concept “couple” is represented by combining two pictograms in order to

build a new glyph (Fig. 17). Te verb “to want” combines the glyph which

stands for the subject (or the generalising element) with the one which

stands for the verb in a plastic way (Fig. 17, 18).

Fig. 17. PASS glyphs “volere” (“to want”), “volere un biscoto” (“to want a biscuit”) and “coppia” (“couple”).

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6. Graphic background

As a consequence of all the issues raised in the previous sections, we defined

a series of construction criteria, which are also influenced by the contexts of

use of the system.

In particular, in order to make the system suitable for therapeutic use and

therefore flexible enough to function in various occasions of use, we propose

building the system botom-up from the components of the clause.

While developing a system of glyphs, the designers need to take into account

that the perfect mimesis with a specific language (including all its ambigui-

ties, etc.) cannot be an objective; this is a condition that affects every transla-

tion or transposition process, even the most encoded transcription systems.

As we discussed in Section 2, AAC systems can be used as a writen-graphic

language—which is more or less independent from the commonly used

local language of the users—or a transposition system for an already existing

language—which can be more or less literal. Terefore, the actual uses of an

AAC system like PASS lie somewhere on a continuum between these two

extremes. Indeed, in the current rehabilitation practices (Costantino, 2011;

Cafiero, 2009; Beukelman and Mirenda, 2014) the atempt to teach language

in a linear and sequential way asks for the expansion of a graphic system, in

order to provide a more ample segmentation of the glyphs which can graphi-

cally make explicit all the grammatical morphemes which would otherwise

remain implied in the agglutinated version.

To date, there is no evidence that an “insulating” transposition approach—

which transposes every grammatical morpheme—or an agglutinative

approach are favourable by themselves for aiding the teaching of a language

to people with ASD. Nevertheless, there is clinical evidence that a tailored

approach to this task according to the specific condition of the subjects is

necessary and favourable (SINPIA, 2018).

A system which is nearer to a writen-graphic language allows the reader/wri-

ter to use the agglutinative properties of depictive images (e.g. “Luca eats an

apple” can be writen by using a single glyph). Tis happens in Aztec writing

too (Fig. 20), however this writing interacts with Nahuatl, which is an aggluti-

native language on its own. Terefore the discrepancies between the two

languages are minimal. As we saw in the previous examples (Fig. 13, 14, 15),

in Italian and PASS the discrepancies are much bigger.

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On the other end of the abstraction continuum, if the objective of the glyph

system is to transpose a non-agglutinative language as the Italian (in order to

use AAC as an interlanguage), PASS needs to make use of abstract and arbi-

trary elements in order to reproduce grammatical morphemes (prepositions,

articles, conjunctions, auxiliaries, etc.) and inflectional features (gender and

number for names, time, aspect and modes of the verbs) (see figure 11 and

12).

Te abstraction management processes which we defined and designed for

PASS are:

1. Te usage of a generalising element, which allows a sentence that

would be agglutinated to be segmented by replacing a specific

element (usually a verb) with the generalising element. For

example “Luca fa la doccia” (“Luca has a shower”) can be translated

with a single glyph, or with a sequence of glyphs in which the

element “Luca” inside the shower is replaced by a generalising

element “human” (a silhouete) and taken outside the “shower”

glyph (see Fig. 13 and 14).

2. When using abstract, very broad terms or auxiliary verbs, e.g.

“volere” (“to want”) or “fare” (”to do”) (Fig. 21), it is almost

impossible to avoid using metalogical rhetoric figures while creating

the glyphs.

As discussed previously in Dalai, Martini, and Perondi (2019), we refer to the

rhetorical figures in the metalogic area (the tropes of the classical rhetoric)

which are related to the signified. Terefore, since this area of the rhetoric

is related to the contents, it is independent from the form and the modes of

expression (Bonfantini, 2000).

However, the usage of these figures has to follow some criteria for regular com-

position. In particular, we focused (Dalai, Martini, and Perondi, 2019) on the

visual synecdoche (i.e. representing a part to signify the whole), and the visual

metonymy (i.e. to represent the cause for the effect or the effect for the cause),

especially for the representation of liquids or for objects which do not have a

well-defined and recognisable shape otherwise (Fig. 19, “to drink”).

For example, the pictograms of the 1968 Mexico Olympic Games can be seen

as a visual synecdoche (a ball stands for “soccer”, a shoe with cleats stands for

“athletics”) (Fig. 22), while the icon of the basket on the macOS interface can

be seen as a visual metonymy (the tool for the effect).

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Fig. 22. Icons of the Olympic games in

Mexico 1968, by Lance Wyman.

Fig. 23. PASS glyphs “juice” and “biscuit”.

Showing a visual metonymy (apple juice)

and a visual synecdoche (biscuit).

We argue that we can evaluate the following issues through the application of

a system of glyphs for AAC:

1. Does a morpheme-by-morpheme transposition show evident and

significative advantages for people with ASD compared to the usage

of the Latin alphabet?

2. By using the valency model for grammar (Sabatini, Camodeca and

De Santis, 2011) as a model for learning, the reader/writer focuses

on the lexical selection without first having to think at the

morphological level. Can it be beneficial to apply a model like the

valency model when the teacher/therapist decides to use a visual

system for conducting rehabilitation with people with CCN?

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7. The pictographic aspects of glyph design, the study of

pictographic composition

Te process we follow in the development of PASS starts by basing the

drawing of the glyphs upon well-defined and established constructs emerging

in the reference literature. Tis allows the detection of relevant variables to

investigate aferwards through empirical research, by following an iterative

process of design, testing and revisions.

7.1. The graphic implications of designing a system of glyphs

In this section, we discuss the modalities for controlling the construction of

the glyphs.

Starting from the definition of Synsemia: “Synsemia means the deliberate and

conscious disposition of elements of writing in the space in order to commu-

nicate, in a reasonably unambiguous way and in a regular manner, through

the spatial articulation and the other visual variables. Tese regularities (Gre-

imas and Courtés, 2007) can be valid only for a specific text (but consistent,

rigorous and interpreted without the aid of the author) or defined by specific

paterns and setled habits of use” (Perondi and Romei, 2010).

From this standpoint, by taking advantage of regularity the reader triggers the

inductive reasoning that allows them to disambiguate the elements that com-

pose the text (Perri, 1994). At the same time, the writer atributes meaning to

graphical elements by using them consistently in the same artefact or corpus.

Te regularity is, in our hypothesis, the guiding principle and ultimate goal in

designing new glyphs in an AAC system.

Te definition of “regularity”, also meaning “graphic consistency”, includes

the definition of visual variables (Bertin, 2011), distinctive features, and refe-

rence frames (Perondi, 2012; Bonora et al., 2019) that we used for the design

of the system of glyphs.

Te graphical definition of the constituent traits of a glyph, as much as the

pertinent ones and the range of variation of their number (Dalai, Martini, and

Perondi, 2019), is a fundamental graphic composition element for a glyph

composition system.

In the PASS system, we kept the range of the number of constituent traits

(Migliore, 2007; Polidoro, 2008; Dalai, Martini and Perondi, 2019) relatively

narrow, in order to avoid producing glyphs that are “too fat” or “too thin”.

Planning to use a range of constituent traits that is too broad can make diffe-

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rences in the visual aspects of the glyphs in the system more evident, which

can generate a visual hierarchy that is unwanted and out of the control of the

designer.

Another salient design issue is that printing problems arise with an excessive

number of features: the reproducibility of litle graphical details becomes

more unpredictable, depending on the printing apparatus.

Terefore, the definition and the design of the constituent traits and per-

tinent traits are critical steps in the design process of a glyph system (for

example, a man who is depicted in a glyph should be recognisable even if he

is drawn in different positions and with different features without varying its

visual weight).

Fig. 24. PASS constituent traits.

Te set of criteria for the visual composition of the glyphs is the synsemic

quatrefoil. Earlier, we described (Bonora et al., 2017; Dalai, Martini, and

Perondi, 2019) in detail the characteristics and the theoretical bases of each

component of the quatrefoil.

1. Atribution of visual variables, each set of visual variables

matches a semantic group.

2. Definition of elements and aggregates

3. Description of hierarchy and hierarchical distance

4. Establishment of reference frames

7.2. Attribution of visual variables (Bertin, 2011, p. 42)

Te definition of the visual variables for each glyph is the crucial step in the

design process of PASS.

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7.2.1. Orientation

In a first phase, in order to have control over the amount of distinctive featu-

res available and to impose a consistent orientation in the glyphs, we chose to

use only two-dimensional drawings (using neither perspective nor axonome-

try). However, this position appears to be too restrictive.

Nevertheless, we kept the usage of the 2D-3D orientation variable coherent

within semantic and functional groups.

Frontal, lateral and three-quarter view

In PASS, for example, every glyph depicting a human being has only two

possible two-dimensional views: frontal and lateral (Fig. 25).

A three-quarter view is allowed only when it is impossible to do otherwise.

Te effectiveness of this design choice is under investigation.

Orientation is also a critical variable for the entaxis of the glyphs, in the com-

position of some constructs, such as pronouns.

Fig. 25. PASS glyph for “essi” (“they”).

7.2.2. Value

Te Value (tone) is a visual variable which has different uses in some AAC

glyph systems. For example, in PCS it is used to simulate colour fill, to highli-

ght some drawing elements or to simulate perspective (Fig. 26).

Greyscale is not used in PASS in order to increase the figure-ground contrast

(Peeters and De Clercq, 2012).

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Furthermore, avoiding the use of value will prevent all printing issues, since

it could be difficult to control greyscale rendering on different printers and

supports.

Black areas are used for generalising elements.

7.2.3. Texture (or grain)

Tere is evidence against the use of dense textures, since they could cau-

se perception problems and an information overload (Bogdashina, 2011)

among the users of AAC glyph systems.

In our analysis, we did not find evidence of regularity in the use of textures in

PCS, WLS or ARSAAC.

For these reasons, we limited the use of textures and when we used them (Fig.

27) we drew the lowest possible number of repetitions of similar modules.

7.2.4. Shape

WLS, PCS and ARSAAC lack an evident definition of a consistent graphic

style. Blissymbolics shows well defined parameters for the composition and

design of glyphs, which support the language without compromising the

graphic consistency.

We decided to base PASS on “shape” regularities which aim to preserve the

homogeneity in the disambiguation process of the glyphs. One of the essen-

tial elements for drawing the shapes is the construction of the glyphs within a

grid (Fig. 28) and using modular elements.

7.2.5. Size

In PASS, the variable size has two different functions: (1) the size of the

components of a glyph, including the thickness of the strokes; (2) the size of

the syntactic markers, inflectional traits and grammatical words in the entaxis

of an agglutinative glyph.

1. One of the problems that may arise when using unregulated line

thickness is that some of the glyphs may become unreproducible at

small sizes. Moreover, lack of regulation on the size of the

components allows the creation of glyphs which present unbalanced

visual weight or showcase an excessively high richness of detail.

Moreover, by not carefully controlling the thickness ratio of the

strokes, this visual variable can actively cause the reader to form

semantic hierarchies which were not planned by design. For these

reasons, we have decided to reduce the stroke ratio number down

to two at present.

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Fig. 29. PASS glyphs “Luca’s nose” (the nose

of a specific man) showing different line

thicknesses (pointer, outline, details).

Fig 30. PASS glyph “Luca is a male” with

and without construction grid.

Te primary ratio defines the outline or the main stroke of theglyph;

the secondary ratio (half of the primary one) describes some

elements inside the glyph or necessary details for the

disambiguation of the glyph.

In the drawing of the pointer used to highlight a specific part of

a glyph, e.g. the nose (Fig. 29), the pointer stroke thickness is twice

the primary one.

2. Te size of the glyphs in an agglutinate glyph has grammatical,

semantic and entactic value.

For example, in an agglutinate glyph of name or adjective type,

the name occupies nearly the full extent of the construction grid,

while the adjective occupies just the nine units in the top-right of

the grid. Tis feature also impacts the definition of the hierarchical

distance between the elements of the glyph (see Section 5.1.3).

7.2.6. Colour

Te use of colour in AAC glyphs poses several problems: the higher the

number of colours, the more difficult it is for the reader to discern and name

them ( Johnson, 2014, p. 93; Miller, 1956); the perception of colour is sub-

jective and never unequivocal ( Johnson, 2014, pp. 37-47); a large part of the

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population has a colour vision deficiency ( Johnson, 2014, pp. 37-47; Sharpe

et al., 1999).

Ofen picture books or AAC communication boards (Costantino, 2011, pp. 69-

75, 160) show coloured glyphs. However, the end users of the PASS system have

particular needs: ASD is ofen combined with perception disorders (Bogdashi-

na, 2011), hence a large amount of colours could cause a cognitive overload. In

addition, there is documentation (Peeters and De Clercq, 2012) discussing the

possibility that subjects with ASD may interpret colours in the environment by

associating them with other concepts in a rigid and univocal way.

For these reasons, we think that it is not possible to control the colour per-

ception of PASS users.

Other factors impacting the usage of colours are the saturation and the

figure-ground colour contrast. In order to obtain optimal results, it would be

necessary to compute the level of brightness of the paper used, the printed

colour, and the print media, for which there is not currently an internationa-

lly shared standard to our knowledge. On the other hand, there is a shared

standard for colour contrast measurements on digital devices (W3C, 2016).

Due to all these technical issues, it is evident that the reproduction of a colour

is not always feasible in family and therapeutic contexts.

Due to all the listed reasons, the PASS system limits the usage of colour as

much as possible (it is used when it can serve a strictly semantic function, Fig.

31). However, it leaves the user the freedom to personalise specific glyphs.

In the Aztec writing system, textures were used when text was monochroma-

tic (De Finis et al., 1996), but the textures have a theoretical drawback as we

highlighted in Section 3 of this chapter.

To this date, we have not found alternatives to the limited usage of colours

and textures.

Fig 31. PASS glyphs “Luca ha i capelli rossi”

(“Luca has red hair”) and “l’uomo ha i

capelli rossi” (“the man has red hair”).

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7.2.7. Position

Position is a crucial variable for the entactic (Vaillant, 1999) composition in

PASS, due to the fact that all the glyphs are composed of graphic elements on

a grid.

Te entactic construction process is driven firstly by iconic depiction, and

secondly by the arrangement of the elements by conventional means, which

determines the position of grammatical morphemes (e.g. adjectives or other

indicators) (see Fig. 20).

PASS uses pointers/indexes (also displayed in Fig. 29) when the depiction of

an object which has been deprived of the surrounding context shows too few

details. Te pointer function and presentation (Fig. 32) relies on the relation

of physical contiguity (position) with the object which is represented.

7.3. Hierarchy and hierarchical distance

Hierarchy and hierarchical distance (Bonora et al., 2017) between the basic

elements in PASS is exploited in order to highlight the glyph structure and

the function of every element (indicators, generalising element, grammatical

morphemes when needed, actors when needed) (Fig. 33).

8. Future developments. A methodology for the development of

glyph systems for clinical habilitation practices.

Tis article presents a methodology—which is grounded in linguistics and

graphic design theories—for the development of a glyph system. Te peculiar

trait of the following methodology is allowing for the measurement of the

effectiveness of the glyph design and composition choices in the specific con-

text of use of clinical habilitation of children with developmental conditions.

Tis goal can be achieved by structuring a set of composition rules for the de-

sign of the glyphs. Trough the systematic application of these rules, it would

be possible for designers to develop new glyphs which are consistent in their

relationship with the semantics they aim to convey, and in their presentation

as a cohesive series. Te objective of this methodology is to provide caregi-

vers and clinicians with self-production tools for Augmentative and Alternati-

ve Communication (AAC) practices.

Tis work does not provide empirical scientific validation for a clinical rehabi-

litation instrument, but it proposes a structured methodology for the develo-

pment and analysis of AAC aiding instruments, which relates graphic design,

linguistics and semiotics from a scientific experimentation perspective.

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Fig. 32. Pointer usage in PASS, identifying a tongue.

Fig. 33. PASS glyphs “happy man”.

We have conducted an initial experiment on the clinical usage of PASS on

a digital device. Te experiment was conducted by Marta Panunzi in 2016,

with the supervision of Luciano Perondi and Simone Minichiello (a speech

therapist specialising in ASD who works in a private health centre in Ferrara,

Italy). Tis preliminary experiment has not been discussed in this paper.

Recently, we have been working to redefine the theoretical basis of the

construction of a system of glyphs, from the graphical and linguistic points of

view, which is reported in this paper.

We advocate that designers can develop strictly structured glyph systems by

deepening their knowledge of rehabilitative clinical practices and the applica-

tion of linguistics principles. Tese systems can then become flexible enough

to be used in a variety of clinical setings.

Te consistency of composition and visual presentation of a glyph system

allows designers to expand the pool of available glyphs and therefore ac-

commodate the ever-changing needs of clinical practices. We affirm that the

strictness of the set of composition rules for glyphs contrasts positively with

the flexibility needed in clinical setings, and that this principle should be

followed by designers while developing communication artefacts for clinical

habilitation.

Te PASS system is therefore currently undergoing a redesign process, embra-

cing both its synsemic composition system and its digital application.

From the perspective of involving end users in the development of PASS, we are

planning to carry on the research on PASS by maintaining a clinical approach.

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Artículo original

Te clinical personnel, who were part of the research team during this first

testing phase, support the hypothesis that the response of the end-users of

PASS will always be extremely variable and unpredictable. Tis is due to the

high subjectivity of ASD. If, during further testing, some consistency in the

end-user responses is discovered, then the research team will proceed with

more quantitative research.

Acknowledgements

We thank Ruth Varela, from Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de A

Coruña, and Linda Zennaro, from Università Iuav di Venezia, for their pre-

cious help with the translation in Spanish.

Disclaimer

Te present article draws upon a previously unpublished conference proce-

eding from the Face Forward International Typography Conference, Dublin

Institute of Technology, 2015. Te present article shows a revised, expanded,

updated and improved dissertation on some of the topics partially covered

in the previous proceeding, for which few similarities can currently be read.

However, the contents of this article are inherently original, since the pre-

vious proceeding has not been published at present.

Glossary

— AAC: Augmentative and Alternative Communication

— Blissymbolics: Te name of a glyph system derived from the name of its

original developer, Charles K. Bliss

— ARSAAC: ARgonés Sistemas Aumentativos y Alternativos de

Comunicación

— ASD: Autism Spectrum Disorders

— CCN: Complex Communication Needs

— CP: Complementiser Phrase

— IP: Inflectional Phrase

— PASS: Picture Augmentative Synsemic System

— PCS: Picture Communication Symbols

— VP: Verb Phrase

— WLS: Widgit Literacy Symbols

Inmaterial 08. Giulia Bonora, Giampiero Dalai, Daniele De Rosa, Marta Panunzi,

Luciano Perondi, Cecilia Rubertelli.

Artículo original

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Giulia Bonora, Giampiero Dalai, Daniele De Rosa

Alpaca Società Cooperativa

via Giuseppe Garibaldi, 5, 44121 Ferrara FE (Italy),

{giulia.bonora;giampiero.dalai;daniele.derosa}@alpaca-

projects.com

Marta Panunzi

Freelance linguist

00100 Roma (Italy), marta.panunzi@gmail.com

Luciano Perondi

3,* Dipartimento di Culture del Progeto,

Università IUAV di Venezia, Santa Croce 191 Tolentini,

30135 Venezia VE (Italy)

lperondi@iuav.it; Tel.:+39-388-1697785

Cecilia Rubertelli

Freelance linguist

10121 Torino TO (Italy), cecilia.rubertelli@gmail.com

Inmaterial 08. Giulia Bonora, Giampiero Dalai, Daniele De Rosa, Marta Panunzi,

Luciano Perondi, Cecilia Rubertelli.

Artículo original