Abstract

We reflect

specifically on the curriculum

for bachelor’s

level

program in communication design. We propose a model of

education

which we

define as “metadisciplinary”

and which

grounded

on the acquisition of competences

rather than

the acquisition of specific contents. Our objective is to show

how a

metadisciplinary didactic model can benefit from the

weak epistemological status of

the

knowledge base

of com-

munication design. According

to the

idea that didactics can

be treated

as a

science

of design,

we propose a model

of edu-

cational

design based on a

metadisciplinary stance. First we

describe two fundamental

aspects of

the

model proposed:

(1) the development of habitus of thought and action and

(2) the distributed and collective nature of

expert knowled-

ge. Next, we

discuss the notion of curriculum architecture.

Finally, we describe a basic set

of metadisciplinary com-

petences that we have identified for students

in the

field of

communication

design.

Key words

Didactics, Teaching of communication

design, Curriculum development, Learning

outcomes, Professional social practices

Inmaterial 06. Giampiero Dalai, Berta Martini, Luciano Perondi, Monica Tombolato.

Resumen

En el artículo que presentamos, reflexionamos específica-

mente sobre el currículum

para programas de grado en dise-

ño de comunicación. Proponemos un modelo educativo que

definimos

“metadisciplinario”,

basado en

las habilidades que

deben ser adquiridas por los estudiantes,

en lugar

de conteni-

dos específicos. Nuestro

objetivo es analizar cómo un

modelo

de enseñanza metadisciplinario puede beneficiarse del débil

estatus epistemológico del

diseño de

comunicación. Según

idea de que la Didáctica puede

considerarse una ciencia

del diseño, proponemos

un modelo de planificación educa-

tiva

orientado

desarrollo de actitudes metadisciplinares.

En primer lugar se

describen los aspectos fundamentales del

modelo

propuesto: el desarrollo del habitus

de pensamiento

acción; el conocimiento experto como conocimiento distri-

buido

y colectivo. A continuación, se

analiza la arquitectura

del currículum; finalmente, se indican las habilidades

básicas

del recorrido formativo que el equipo de trabajo ha

selec-

cionado

a partir de las prácticas reconocidas en

campo del

diseño de la

comunicación.

Palabras clave

Didactica, Enseñanza

del diseño de la comunicación,

desarrollo curricular, resulta-

dos de aprendizaje,

prácticas sociales profesionales

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

1. Introduccion

Any program of study

in a given field must distinguish between two

distinct

forms of knowledge: savoir savant and savoir à enseigner. Tis

means

that

educators must deconstruct the savoir savant in order

to identify its essential

components (Martini, 2005) and, eventually, to reconstruct a text du savoir

Chevallard,

1991). Te text du savoir allows students to acquire the knowled-

ge and skills necessary for acting

effectively in the field of

study.

When the field

of study is intrinsically interdisciplinary, the savoir savant

emerges from the intersection of

disciplines with different epistemological

statuses, which

can be

“weak” or

“strong.” In this case,

the savoir à enseigner

of the field needs to include the essential components of the disciplines

involved. In this article we propose a didactics of communication design that

moves beyond a discipline-oriented

model. Tis approach interprets the term

“didactics” not

only as

the theory of

teaching, but also as a science of design

(Laurillard,

2012).

1.1. Te teaching of communication design

Tis

article draws inspiration

from the development of a joint course in edito-

rial design at Istituto Superiore per le Industrie Artistiche (ISIA) Urbino and

at the University of Urbino (Luciano Perondi, Beppe Chia, Leonardo Romei,

Berta Martini, Paolo Polidori, Yuri Kazepov, and Luciano Angelini); from

collaborative teaching

and other

work done at the

Centro Internazionale di

Studi Interculturali di Semiotica e Morfologia (CISISM, Berta Martini and

Luciano Perondi);

and from the work involved in overseeing

teaching and

curriculum

development for the

Bachelor’s

in Graphic Design and Visual

Communication of ISIA Urbino

(Luciano Perondi).

In this article we reflect specifically on the curriculum for bachelor’s level

programs in communication design, regardless of the type of institution or

the duration of

the program (three or four years). In particular, we propose a

model of education that we define as “metadisciplinary” and

that is based on

competences to be acquired rather than

specific contents to be learned.

A curriculum designed in this way could increase the value of

communication

design as a field of research and also increase its political usefulness and prac-

tical applications. Its increase

in value would be related not only to the specific

uses of communication design, but also to the fact that this research field

would become fundamental to other disciplines, which in

turn could increase

their

production as a result of

their relationship

with communication design.

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

Te field of graphic design, or by greater extension of communication

design,

can be

considered to

have “weak” epistemological status because it does not

have particularly complex specific disciplinary contents

if compared to disci-

plines with strong status, such as physics or medicine, which are considered

to have “strong” epistemological status. By the locution “specific disciplinary

contents,”

we mean the basic knowledge a student must

learn before being

able to

approach a problem within

the

domain defined by the discipline. For

example, unlike in physics or medicine, in

graphic design this is usually possi-

ble

at the end

of the first

year of the bachelor’s or

even earlier.

Te specific skills of graphic design are:

1) graphic composition / visual configuration,

including micro and

macro typography,

editorial design, graphic

design, brand identity

2) design methodology

Neither of

these skills has developed a

solid scientific grounding yet.

Te remaining skills involved in graphic design are borrowed from

other

disciplines, for example:

1) history (of graphic design)

2) neuroscience (perception and cognition)

3) drawing

4) photography

5) etc.

or from a mix

of disciplines, such as color

theory, which

draws from physics

and neuroscience.

Indeed, as

Poter (2002,

p.100) highlights, “Much design work

is carried out

in a very direct and informal way. […] Of

course

an artisan

designer (of any

kind) works very

directly and with

a minimum of ‘communication

procedu-

res’. […] Te procedures show the

designer approaching an unknown situa-

tion, making himself

familiar with it, taking instructions, making sure they

are

fully understood,

weighing the possibilities, discussing them, arriving

conclusions, offering proposals, modif

ying them, providing drawings and

other instructions to

a third

party, and

supervising the outcome.Te result is

something new in the world; a product, an environmental change;

a new set

of possibilities.”

Inmaterial 06. Giampiero Dalai, Berta Martini, Luciano Perondi, Monica Tombolato.

1.2. Te botom-up genesis of design as a

discipline

Te weak epistemological status

of communication design is

due, at least

partially, to

the

botom-up genesis of the discipline. Indeed, this

field of study

took

form progressively, starting

from a

body of knowledge organized in a

non-systematic way by a community of

professionals,

with the objective of

tackling

multidimensional, broad problems (Morin, 1999). Te multidimen-

sional nature of the problems means that designers must master not

only

knowledge belonging to different cognitive

domains (that is,

to different

fields of

experience characteristic of

different fields of

study), but also the

competence to

combine and transfer that knowledge.

In short, they

must use

metadisciplinary

approach.

1.3. Te strength of the weak status of

communication

design

In order

to build a body of professional knowledge with pieces of information

that are not

fully structured and formalized

yet, we must build educational

pathways based on principles of didactic design. Te weak epistemologi-

cal status of

communication design grants a significant didactic advantage,

since it allows the students to work on realistic

projects earlier than students

from disciplines with strong epistemological status. For example, in

physics,

engineering or medicine, students need

several years of background studies

before being able to carry

out projects in their field. Tis contrast between

students working in fields with weak vs.

strong

epistemological was

evident

when ISIA Urbino

and Università degli

studi di Urbino organized mixed

courses in 2013-2016 in which communication design was combined with

disciplines with stronger status, such as

sociology,

pedagogy,

and the norma-

tive discipline of law.

Moreover, the simplicity and

the

specificity of the

background of communi-

cation design allows students to focus not only on

curricular

competences

but also

on integrative ones (see

Section 4).Te set of

competences

acquired

by the end of the could be applied in professional contexts not strictly bound

to the main

subject of

the

course

(i.e. graphic design, as well as areas such as

industrial design and interaction

design).

We do not provide a definition of communication

design

as a self-contai-

ned discipline. Numerous authors and institutions have defined “design” or

“designer” (such as Poter, 2002;

World

Design Organization, 2015) and ma-

pped the subdisciplines (such as

Saffer, 2009, pp. 20-22; Carta del progeto

grafico, 1989; Farrell and Nielsen, 2014), including several “communication”

subdisciplines.

Rather

than focusing on

disciplinary definitions,

our objective

is to discuss how a

metadisciplinary

didactic model can benefit from the weak

epistemological status

of communication design.

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

Te weak epipstemological status of communication

design

and its

implicit

multidisciplinarity mean that we cannot consider

communication design (or

design

more broadly) to

be a clearly defined and bounded discipline (Rodgers

and Bremner,

2017).

Rather, the straightforwardness of the theoretical

bac-

kground of communication design means that students—from very early in

the

study program—can use it in applied projects that include contents from

other disciplines.

Mixing students from different disciplines

and levels in the

same class

allows

students to take advantage of the transdisciplinarity of the

theoretical base of communication

design. Tis approach benefits communi-

cation design students by enriching their theoretical background and benefits

students from

other disciplines,

by allowing them to apply their

theoretical

knowledge to

realistic projects at the beginning of their studies.

Tis context

should

help students

develop the skills

of resilience and ductility (see Sections

2 and 3) considered primary in the

methodology

of communication design.

2. Metadisciplinary didactics and curriculum

design

Te idea that didactics can be treated as a science of design arises from the

need to face the complexity

of educational situations and their

resistance to

experimental control (Laurillard, 2012). When an educational

innovation is

implemented, the result

can be

very different

from the planned design. Tis

is due to the unpredictability of teaching situations. Te

solution is to

adopt

a design-based methodology, which is

not experimental

in a traditional sense

but

rather

iterative. In this way,

any educational innovation,

which

is initially

based on theory, can

be revised

in light of

what has occurred in

the classroom.

Tis approach makes it is possible to improve both theoretical knowledge

and practical knowledge (Collins, 1999).

Te teaching model we propose here is a design experiment with several

starting premises:

• Te complexity of teaching situations (teaching does not

occur in

a laboratory, but rather in a changing context

with many

inherent

uncertainties)

• Te flexibility

of the design (the initial project develops

gradually through a process of revision)

• Social interaction (the initial project develops on the basis of a

feedback system between

researchers, teachers

and students)

• Te goal of the experiment is not to confirm hypotheses but

rather to develop and refine an educational pathway

Inmaterial 06. Giampiero Dalai, Berta Martini, Luciano Perondi, Monica Tombolato.

An educational design experiment is therefore

a reflection-in-action (Schön,

1983). Tis

idea originates in Dewey’s theory of inquiry (1938). According

to Dewey, every inquiry that takes place develops from the indeterminacy of

the situation to its resolution. Tose

who perform

an inquiry combine mental

reasoning and action in a process that is

transactional, indeterminate and

intrinsically social.

a result, we have forms of practical

inquiry that lead to

the invention of possible paths of action that do not fall within the prevailing

scheme of practical reasoning. Tat is, the path of action is not selected

from

set

of pre-established options.

Within this

framework, we define metadisciplinary

didactics as a model of

educational design oriented to the development of metadisciplinary atitudes,

which allow people to

recognize

and transcend the boundaries of their disci-

pline and communicate and work as

a team with specialists from disciplines

different from their own (Mingheti

and Cutrano, 2004).

Tis

definition

captures two fundamental aspects of educational

design:

Te development of metadisciplinary atitudes fosters the

acquisition of the habitus (of thought and action) of

the

communication designer

Expert

knowledge is inherently

collective and distributed in

that it

implies a progressive

specialization of cognitive work, which

emerges through collaboration (Sloman & Fernbach, 2018)

2.1. Te development of

competence

With regard to point 1, we first specify the meaning of the concept of habitus,

then

clarify

its relationship to the concept of competence. Bourdieu (2003)

defines habitus

as the set of durable and

transposable internal dispositions

that guide the subject and serve as a

matrix

of perceptions, evaluations and

actions within a domain. In the domain

of science

(2003a) practitioners

must not only master the relevant theoretical background but also develop

habitus that allows theory to flow into

their practice in the form of

“craf”,

“dexterity”, “glance.” In other

words,

performing competently within a certain

domain

of knowledge

requires both

knowing how to think

and knowing how to

act (Martini, 2017).

Moreover, this domain specificity is

not only specificity of contents, but also

epistemic specificity. Tis

means

characterizing a field of knowledge not

only

in terms of its

contents, but

also in

terms of its established rules of

use,

methods and languages, which together ensure the generation of products be-

longing to that

particular domain. It

is then

possible to identify a relationship

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

between the process

of acquiring competence in a certain cognitive domain

and the process of structuring the corresponding habitus. According to Bour-

dieu, the habitus is constructed

through repeated exposure to domain-speci-

fic practices. Tis

means

that working in a

certain domain allows us to

gain

progressively more confidence with its practices;

that is, to know how

to act

effectively

and efficiently within it.

According to a certain cognitive perspective of learning, knowing how to act

cognitively in

conformity with a disciplinary domain implies constructing

relevant and effective action

paterns with respect

to that

domain (Vergnaud,

1994).

Action

paterns are invariant

structures

that can be mobilized in diffe-

rent situations. Broader and

more complex action paterns for handling more

complex situations can be obtained

by assembling

basic ones. As action paterns,

as in habitus, they are developed in

practice and improved by the student

through repeated

and extensive exercise.

From an educational

standpoint, it

is therefore reasonable to consider

certain

sets of domain-specific activities—which

stimulate directly, frequently and

systematically certain modes of thinking and acting—as the experiential con-

texts of the domain-specific

development

of these schemes. In this perspecti-

ve, the

specific way of thinking and acting

that characterizes a certain domain

of knowledge

can be

assimilated to

the specificity of

the

practices that

lead

to a certain habitus or converge

in a certain “practical sense.” By this we do

not

mean that disciplinary competence and habitus are the same. Rather, we

argue that

it is possible to think

of the process of acquiring knowledge

as a

process of

incoporating of the corresponding

habitus.

use the term “competence” to refer to the

ability

of the subject

to coor-

dinate his/her declarative knowledge (know that, notions) and

procedural

knowledge (know how, skills) together with the proper internal dispositions

to face

a challenging situation (Pellerey, 2003). Te internal dispositions are

systems of

beliefs, motivations and

values

that orient and influence the beha-

vior of

the

subject. According to this definition, a subject shows competence

when he/she intentionally employs declarative and/or procedural

knowledge

to deal

with new problematic situations.

Tis definition of

competence is useful for our argument because it interprets

competences as “knowledge in use” and highlights their

transversal nature

(Martini, 2009). Competence is something that transcends one’s declarative

and procedural knowledge and

allows

one to act intentionally by taking res-

ponsibility for one’s own doing

(Le Boterf, 1997). Behind every performance

in a specific context there is

a competence “at

work.”

Competence,

however,

Inmaterial 06. Giampiero Dalai, Berta Martini, Luciano Perondi, Monica Tombolato.

does

not coincide with performance. A set of performances is not just a series

of disjointed facts.

Rather, competence indicates an ability to combine va-

rious behaviors and transfer them to other relevant situations. More precisely,

competence is an atribute of

the subject-in-situation (Frega, 2012).

According to this view, competence

is a

higher

level of learning than the lear-

ning

of knowledge

and skills,

as it results from the

adaptive combination of

these forms

of knowledge. Another important aspect is that this

higher-level

learning

develops in parallel with lower-level learning. From an educational

point of

view, this means that competences

must be developed simultaneous-

ly with other learning.

Tis process requires tasks of different difficulty level,

according to the levels of mastery of

declarative and procedural knowledge

(Baldacci, 2006).

Tese tasks fulfill the role of Kuhnian exemplary cases (Kuhn, 1969), which

have

the

function of training the subject to recognize similarity—under some

respects—as a necessary requisite

for transfer. In

other words, domain-specific

knowledge and skills (i.e. acquired in a specific cognitive domain) become

trans-

versal when

the

subject uses them

intentionally in situations that are different

from those in which these knowledge

and skills were acquired. Tis happens be-

cause the subject identifies

a similarity in some respects between these

situations.

Te ability to transfer knowledge is therefore in the “eyes” of

the

subject

who

sees the new situation as

(Witgenstein, 1953) analogous—in some

respects—to known situations. Tese situations indeed play the

role of

paradigmatic situations (Kuhn’s exemplar cases). Terefore, the process of

transferring knowledge to new contexts

is difficult

not because of objective

factors independent of the subject. On the contrary, the difficulty is

linked

to the subject’s

ability

to perceive the analogy between two different con-

texts, which can stimulate the use of

the same knowledge

and skills.

In short,

metadisciplinary atitudes imply

the

ability

to act effectively in contexts.

Effective action takes place, from an

epistemological point of view, thanks to

the incorporation of habitus, and, from a psychological point

of view, thanks

to the construction of

schemes of action.

2.2. Collective

knowledge

With regard to point 2, adopting a metadisciplinary didactic model requires

adhering to

a specific learning model. Te complex, uncertain

and intrinsica-

lly social character of didactic

situations has

led

us to interpret

the processes

of gaining knowledge with a socio-constructivist approach, through which

learning

is interpreted as a

process that is active, collaborative,

situated and

distributed (see Fig. 1). Te teaching

and learning models deriving from

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

this approach are characterized by an active, participatory and experimental

didactics (Fig. 1).

Tis kind of didactics enhances

the

practical and operational

dimension of learning (Calvani,

2001).

In particular, the approach interprets

the

appropriation

of knowledge

as “a knowledge in practice” and the context of

training as

a “community of practice” (Lave and Wenger, 2006).

According

to the situated learning model, knowledge

is defined starting from

practice. Terefore, learning

must also be conceived as strictly bound to human

social practices. Tese practices give rise to meaning construction. In particular,

meaning emerges

from a

negotiation process that combines participation and

reification (Wenger, 2006). Tis implies that in

the planning of a teaching and

learning situation

it is important to balance forms

of participation (first

throu-

gh legitimate peripheral participation

and then through full participation)

and the

reification

of knowledge to be taught (learning materials,

instruments, devices,

texts, programs and so on). If reification allows the participation

in the practice,

Fig. 1.

Summary of

the elements related to

the

learning process is facilitated, on the contrary it will be limited.

the concepts

of knowledge in practice and

collective knowledge, which contribute

to the

definition of

the metadisciplinary

didactic model.

Inmaterial 06. Giampiero Dalai, Berta Martini, Luciano Perondi, Monica Tombolato.

We use an intrinsically social

approach.

Tis means interpreting knowledge

as the product of a

collective mind that is organized according to a principle

of specialization of cognitive work but also

interdependence

(Sloman and

Fernbach, 2018).

2.3. Curriculum architecture

In order

to build a metadisciplinary didactic model, we must use a specific cu-

rricular design.

Te curriculum is a theoretical and

practical device that allows

knowledge,

practices and competences to be articulated coherently (Martini,

2009). Te articulation of

these three elements

confers unity and complete-

ness

to the design of the curriculum,

as these elements

are linked

by a logical

relationship. Te selection and organization of knowledge

must be consistent

with

the skills that we intend to promote, and these skills must be developed

within situations that allow students

them to put them into practice.

From a theoretical

point of view,

the curriculum structure can be articulated

on two levels, each one aimed at

developing the following two types of

lear-

ning: the learning of knowledge and

skills (first-level curriculum objective)

and the learning of habitus, that is, of long-term mental habits (second-level

curriculum

objective)

(Baldacci,

2006). As

already said, these two kinds of

learning

take place

simultaneously. As a

consequence, the teaching situations

for first-level and second-level objectives must be organized in parallel. Tis

means constructing educational situations in which different

logic levels are

involved at the

same time: declarative and procedural

knowledge, but also

competences.

From a practical point of view, curriculum design can

be of two types: (a)

the first type defines learning

objectives in advance, then selects

the

teaching

content

and identifies

teaching practices for the development of

the

expected

skills; (b) the second type, on the contrary,

identifies learning objectives a

posteriori, deriving them from the teaching-learning situations (Bonaiuti,

Calvani, Ranieri, 2007). In both cases the curriculum

is focused

on the

rela-

tionship between learning objectives and teaching

practices. Te curriculum

with

predefined objectives derives practices from objectives and

traditionally

has a structure that is linear and based on transmission. Te curriculum with

open objectives derives objectives from

practices and

has

a structure that is

non-linear and

based on problems.

In our communication design approach, we adopted a curriculum with

open

objectives (type b), using

the theory of didactic transposition (Chevallard,

1991). We gradually improved the curriculum

in an iterative

manner on the

basis of actual classroom experiences.

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

In didactic transposition, knowledge is removed from the original site

production, adapted

and introduced into a teaching situation (Schubauer

Leoni,

2008).

Transposing,

therefore, means puting scientific expert

knowledge into a

didactic form

so that it can be taught and learned. With

the

term “expert knowledge”, however,

must understand

not only the formal

knowledge emerging from the scientific community, but also the non-formal

knowledge emerging from professional social practices (Martinand, 2001).

According to Develay (1995) the taught knowledge depends on the interac-

tion between scientific knowledge and professional social practices through

the

processes of axiologization and teaching mediation.

Axiologization con-

sists of

the selection of specific knowledge on the basis of its relevance with

respect not only to the discipline but also to the construction of professional

habitus. Teaching

mediation consists of identifying specific

teaching practices

that mobilize knowledge and skills

that are functional to the development of

the

expected competences.

Tis extension of the

epistemological pole

from formal knowledge to profes-

sional social practices is particularly appropriate in the case of communication

design

because this is a “weak-status” knowledge that emerges from a pre-exis-

ting professional field through a (predominantly) secondary disciplinarization

(Hofsteter and Schneuwly, 2014).

In the context

of didactic transposition,

interpreting professional social practices as an

expert

form of knowledge has

a precise epistemological meaning.

First, it means questioning the idea

of the

absolute superiority of academic knowledge, which is instead considered to be

one practice among others (the

practice of research) (Astolfi et al., 2008). Se-

cond, it means underlining the dynamic and dialectical relationship between

the

theoretical level of formalization and the empirical level of praxis.

2.4. An example of multidisciplinary curriculum design

example of multidisciplinary didactics

that made use of the

concepts des-

cribed in the previous sections concerns the joint teaching activities carried

out

in 2015-2016 at as part of the Bachelor’s in Graphic

Design and Visual

Communication (ISIA Urbino) and the Science of Primary Education (Uni-

versity

of Urbino; see Martini and Perondi, 2016). Te following academic

teaching disciplines were identified within the respective curricula:

• Typographic techniques

• Design methodologies

• Iconography

• Pedagogy of knowledge

• Docimology

Inmaterial 06. Giampiero Dalai, Berta Martini, Luciano Perondi, Monica Tombolato.

Te involved professors identified common educational objectives:

• Organizing

work (processes,

objectives, timing)

• Systematically analyzing a problem

• Coordinating micro and macro objectives

• Prototyping and testing

• Cooperating

Te students were

divided into mixed working

groups composed of

com-

munication

design

students and undergraduate primary school education

students. Te groups were asked

to collaborate on

a project, for which they

had to deal with the aspects relevant to their respective courses of study. Te

project consisted of the following parts:

• Te brief

• Work plan

• Objectives

• Knowledge

customization

• Potential competitors

• Innovation

• Justification of choices about

content, mood, ICT,

etc.

• Testing

Te assignment included two design tasks:

design

publishing artifacts (cross-media narrative system and

cross-media exhibition system) that facilitate teaching and learning;

design

a testing tool for the developed

artifacts.

We used shared assessment criteria to evaluate

the

projects. Te

results

of this

experience were shown and discussed in Martini and Perondi (2016).

Figures 2 and 3 show some artifacts developed

by students at ISIA Urbino for

the joint course in editorial design during the academic years ranging from

2013 to

2016.

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

Figure 2. Spazio Meta is a proposal for

the management of care relationships

between elderly people, carers and families, which can be

applied

in different urban communities.

Te project consists of a place in which people seeking carers can meet the people who offer care. Te aim

of the project is to provide recognition and real value to the work of carers in

the eyes of the community. Te

proposal consists of design of

activities, alternative methods for selecting carers, and informal training. Te

project also provides guidelines for the creation, management

and development of a meeting place that can

become a node in a new social network in the city.

Tis would be done through interventions

such as legal

counseling, social assistance and the design of spaces and

communication. Te project was carried out

as a joint effort between

ISIA di Urbino and Università degli studi di Urbino, academic year 2013-14,

with students from

courses in editorial design, law and sociology,

and with the

contribution of A. Maurizi, E. Bito, F. Zaupa, M. Lonardi, V. Monacelli, teachers B. Chia,

L. Romei, L. Perondi, Y. Kazepov, P.

Polidori, L. Angelini.

Inmaterial 06. Giampiero Dalai, Berta Martini, Luciano Perondi, Monica Tombolato.

Fig. 3. I’M POSSIBLE is an exhibit for children on the theme of impossible figures, in which the integration of communicative artifacts (vi-

deos and exhibition boards) and interactive activities

(games and individual and group exercises) involve the children in critical analysis of the

complex

concept of impossibility. Te children

explore and physically experience impossibility— which

consists, in this case, on of the lack

isomorphism in these particular drawings—by comparing and observing the (non-)correspondence between images and

solid objects. Te

project was carried out as a joint effort between ISIA di Urbino and Università degli studi di

Urbino, academic year 2015-16, with students

from courses in editorial design and primary education, and

with the contribution of C. Cairo, G. Cruciani, L. Zennaro, C. Schiaratura, P.

Landolfo, teachers B.

Chia, L. Romei, L. Perondi, Y. Kazepov, P. Polidori, L. Angelini.

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

3. Competence-oriented teaching vs. discipline-oriented teaching

in communication design

Within the socio-constructivist approach, competences

are

the result of an

educational pathway

in which the students build

their ability to interpret

reality and to act effectively

upon it. Competences must

be defined in

relation

to their use in

different contexts. In other words, they must be identified

within

a system of socially and culturally recognized

practices. Within

this

framework, we selected the basic competences to be

pursued by starting with

recognized practices

in the field of communication design (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Competences and the related features

of the didactic design

Inmaterial 06. Giampiero Dalai, Berta Martini, Luciano Perondi, Monica Tombolato.

A competence-based curriculum in communication design faces a tension

between two opposing forces: (1) One on hand, communication design must

be grounded in crafsmanship (and we consider all the competences listed

below to be

crafsmanship or

artisan competences). Sennet (2008) describes

crafsmanship as the ability to detect problems, ask the right questions about

them, and disclose

them. Tese competences led the community of

com-

munication

design

professionals

to form the basic

body of knowledge of this

field

(although

it is not yet organized systematically). (2)

On the other

hand,

communication design has weak

epistemological status, and

therefore the

didactic

design

must be metadisciplinary.

We also considered

the

need for flexibility, given that students will develop

their

careers in a quickly changing context. Given these considerations, instead of iden-

tifying disciplinary content, we focused on the skill set that students would need

in order to face design problems. We identified a set of basic

competences (Fig.

5) derived from communication design courses and expert designers’ personal

experience and teaching. Te competences we focused on are mathematical, his-

torical-critical, handcraf, design methodology and scientific method (see Fig. 5)

3.1. Mathematical competence

Te communication designer uses mathematics for description.

Trough

mathematics, a

designer can describe the project accurately and in algorith-

mic form, with

the

aim not only of specifying the project’s structure, but also

allowing its

mechanical and/or digital reproduction. For a communication

designer, handling

mathematical

tools means mastering the language of scien-

ce. Tese tools allow the communication designer

to access shared knowle-

dge that

has been developed by other scientists, and which can technically

support

the

work and the

choices of

the communication designer (Marini,

2011). Donald

Knuth, with Metafont, has shown how mathematics

can

serve as

a tool for understanding

and defining the basic structure of

a graphic

problem (the shape of the leters

and the relationships between leters), pro-

viding a

rigorous description

that is understood by a human being and easily

computable by

a machine (or a description

which

can be

used as a specifica-

tion for a sofware implementation, at least) (Knuth, 1979).

Te ability to describe a problem—which is strongly related to competen-

ces in design methodology (section 3.4.) and in scientific method (section

3.5.)—makes it possible to store

knowledge until it is

ready to be reused (see

above discussion of Marini, 2011). Communication designers might not

need to become mathematicians, but they need to

master the language and

tools of mathematics as a support to

their work and as a means of communi-

cating with computers and with other professionals.

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

3.2. Historical-critical competence

Fundamental competences in the education of

a communication designer are

historical research and the review of

contemporary production. Among the

various currents of

historical research, of particular interest for the education

of communication

designers is the innovative approach adopted in France

during the ’20s

by the

historians

of the Nouvelle Histoire, which revolved

around the École des Annales (Burke, 1992). In particular, the metadisci-

plinary nature of this current

is of interest: historiography is complemented

with

other disciplines

(from which the historians take tools and methodolo-

gies), and these disciplines become partners in the search for documentation.

Tis

competence includes:

Searching for documentation: the activity

of searching for

documentation has to be designed and has to encompass both

physical and digital archives. For example, knowing

the

logic behind

a search engine allows students to

infer how to set up a search query

that can lead to a targeted, deep search. Requires understanding the

principles of mathematics/information technology underlying the

storage of

information in a database.

Selecting sources: understanding of hierarchy and classification

of sources is key to structuring

a corpus of documents. Te main

challenge

is interpreting the hierarchy of sources (primary,

secondary, etc.) based on the research objective.

Understanding deeply the cultural and historical

background of

the project as a foundation for innovation.

Generalizing some considerations by Dario Antiseri regarding the teaching

of the empirical-experimental natural sciences

(Antiseri, 2000),

we underline

the contribution of historical

analysis in forming minds that are anti-dogma-

tic and open to

multiple perspectives. Such

minds

are

aware of the influence

that the

socio-cultural

context exercises

the

scientific progress of every

specific form of knowledge as well as of

the

obstacles,

both theoretical and

practical, that have marked its evolution. According to Antiseri, confrontation

with

history is a basic ingredient

of an authentic “epistemological didactics”

that emphasizes posing questions rather than lists of possible solutions,

treating

error as a source of knowledge and

progress, and—we add—viewing

innovative thinking as

linked

to the ability to pose

new interesting questions,

or to think outside

the dominant conceptual schemes

that shape every histo-

rical-cultural period.

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

It is not by chance that one criterion of the didactic transposition criteria is

that of

“historicization.” Leting students perceive the historical dimension of

knowledge contributes to the process of re-contextualizing knowledge within

the

didactic system (teacher-student-knowledge). Te didactic

system is not

the

transparent effect of our

will. Its functioning requires that expert knowle-

dge, in

order to be taught, must

undergo certain transformations that make it

suitable for being

taught

and learned.

When knowledge is selected as

knowledge to

be taught and enters

an educa-

tional pathway, it

undergoes transformations that generate another type of

knowledge. Among these transformations we

point out decontextualization

and depersonalization. Tese transformations indicate the process of “separa-

tion” of knowledge from the historical-social context in which it was produ-

ced, from how and why it was established. Historicization is then configured

as a process of re-contextualization and re-personalization of knowledge

within

the

didactic system (Martini, 2011).

3.3. Handcraf competence

Te term “handcraf” refers

to producing artifacts and tools with one’s own

hands.

Te handcraf competence is closely intertwined with the knowledge

acquisition. In a research area such

as communication design, which des-

cends from practices

stretching

back centuries, the competence of

handcraf-

ting artifacts, as well as everyday training and

practice, are strongly tied to

the

ability

to conceive of these artifacts and to imagine possible solutions

problems.

Moxon (1683, p.6), in the preface of his Mechanick Exercises, states:

“(…) by a typographer,

I mean

such a

one, who by his own

Judgement, from

solid reasoning with himself, can either perform,

or direct others to perform

from the beginning to the end, all the Handy-works and Physical Operations

relating to

Typographie”.

Te handcraf competence requires students to develop

a strong relationship

between “solid reasoning with oneself ” and the conception

of an artifact

through full knowledge of the opportunities offered by the available tools.

Tis competence

allows

the

designer to approach a problem with the logic

of “what you get is what

you want”

(WYGIWYW) as opposed to the easier

logic of “what

you see is

what you get”

(WYSIWYG) typical of

contempo-

rary interfaces. Tis perspective impacts on handcraf practice,

as well

as IT

programming, which is seen as a mode of

production of

the designer’s tools.

In addition to

the skills of drawing, photography, printing techniques and

the

production of images in

general, the handcraf competence

also includes

skills related to expressive composition and configuration. Tese later skills

are

not formalized but rather are acquired

through everyday practice and

Inmaterial 06. Giampiero Dalai, Berta Martini, Luciano Perondi, Monica Tombolato.

through

comparison with historical and contemporary examples. Te han-

dcraf competence

includes also the

more systematic components of com-

munication

design, such as the manipulation of visual variables, typeseting,

quantitative data visualization or scientific and

technical representations. Te

handcraf practice allows students to develop tools and modes of creation

that are impossible to develop through speculation and theoretical thinking.

Moreover, the crafsman approach is ofen scalable to

industry: by carrying

out the entire process of production

as a crafsman would, the student can

understand

the logic behind mechanical, automatic, and parametric indus-

trial production.

A significant example of the handcraf competence is the

case of

Galileo and

the surface of the moon. Samuel

Edgerton (Bredekamp, 2011) describes how

Galileo’s painting skills allowed him

to reproduce the roughness

of the surfa-

ce of the moon

by observing and replicating the line of separation between

light

and shadow. Other contemporary scholars were not

able to do

this, even

though they had the opportunity to

observe the moon through a telescope.

In our metadisciplinary teaching

model, the intertwining

of handcraf

competence and formal knowledge is consistent with

a socio-constructivist

approach to learning (see

paragraph

2).

Tis is

focused, in fact, on the idea

distributed knowledge—the idea that knowledge is not only

in the mind of

the learners but also in the objects, in the environment and in other

people.

From this point of

view, constructed artifacts are a reification of individual

and social knowledge.

Terefore, learning environments (Wilson, 1996)

must allow learners to

act

on and

with objects in a collaborative way. Acting

on and with

objects progressively structures the crafsman’s habitus (Sennet,

2008), which is a modus operandi that aims

to allow the learner to improve his

or her background

knowledge.

3.4. Design methodology competence

We return to our discussion of Morin (1999, see section 1) on the ability

to tackle broad, complex problems. In considering

this competence, we

are

interested not in the outcome (the performance), but

rather in the process

(the

way of

achieving the outcome). In this

sense, the

competence in de-

sign methodology

indicates to what

degree

of complexity/broadness the

individuals are

capable of

dealing with a problem. In this regard,

Le Boterf

(1997) proposes to move

from an “atomic” concept of skills to the concept of

“architecture” of skills. Tis move allows us

to distinguish between different

styles of

organization and

integration of resources

and knowledge in different

cognitive structures and strategies of actions. Te design methodology com-

petence

plays a

fundamental role in communication design (and of design

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

in general). It

is the ability to activate and

integrate one’s resources

and skills

into appropriate structures.

Tis competence

is probably the one that most

distinguishes the

field of communication design (and of design in general).

especially

focus on the ability to deal with problems

of various

types

(asking the right questions), develop solutions based on the combination

previous experiences, and draw on

knowledge coming from other disciplines.

From an educational

point of view, the various kinds the problems determine

the

type and level of competence required. So it is necessary to

identify types

of problems to identify types of competences.

In design schools, the competence

in design methodology is usually “trans-

mited” from professionals to students

through simulations

that approximate

real-life projects to varying degrees. Te teacher guides and

corrects the

students in their atempts, during a series of individual or group meetings and

revisions. Te underlying educational model is that of cognitive apprentices-

hip

(Gardner,

1991). Te teaching

practices for this model are simulation,

problem-based learning (Barrows, Tamblyn, 1980), project-based

learning

(Borghi, 1969), scaffolding and tutoring (Wood,

Bruner, Ross,

1976),

modeling (Bandura, 1967).

Te student acquires this competence

through

a process of trial and

error process.

It is difficult in this field

to establish a

“quality control” that is coherent and systematic.

However, this competence

is a

very specific characteristic of the designer. It also makes it easier for de-

sign students to approach themes and problems that

go beyond basic design

education, right from the first stages of the program of study.

3.5. Scientific method competence

Communication design students must acquire skills

in the the scientific

method, which are closely related to mathematics and historical research.

one hand,

these skills allow communication designers to conduct a quanti-

tative evaluation of their

choices. On the other hand, they permit communi-

cation designers to deepen and

validate the specific knowledge

related to the

domain of

communication design (such as visual variables and

typographic

composition).

Students must master the fundamentals of research,

understood as a syste-

matic process

of collecting, analyzing,

and interpreting information (Leedy

& Ormrod, 2010, p.2). Te research consists of phases, which directly

inform

the

subsequent ones

in an inferential process.

While

the experimental

design

varies according to the type

of research, the scientific method generally

follows a set of established steps (Leedy & Ormrod,

2010, pp. 2-7,

see Fig.

5). It is no

coincidence that

these steps are similar to those for developing a

Inmaterial 06. Giampiero Dalai, Berta Martini, Luciano Perondi, Monica Tombolato.

mathematical/sofware algorithm, since both processes are based on a chain

of logical inferences.

Another fundamental

aspect

of this competence is to know at least some ba-

sics of experimental design. Te variety

of experimental designs is very

wide

(e.g.

with or without control group, one-shot, longitudinal, mixed-group,

etc.)

and a designer doesn’t need to know them all. However, having knowle-

dge of basic experimental

designs helps

designers choose

the tools that

best

suit the kind of

research they

need to carry out

and, more importantly, the

collaborators from

other disciplines

that they need to

collaborate with.

If experimental data will be quantitative, communication

designers need

to understand the mathematics underlying

the

statistical methods used to

analyze these data.

In fact, this knowledge is key for devising

an appropria-

te experimental design. Once the researchers have

detected the right kind

of mathematical analysis to perform

the

desired research data, they can

choose from a range of experimental designs that are suitable for collecting

the right kind of data. Te ability to choose, set up

and conduct an experi-

mental design is at

the heart of the scientific method competence.

4. Horizontal

sharing of knowledge among students

Students have a variety of

mental models, because

students integrate lear-

ning

in the school environment with their own atitudes, hobbies and past

experiences. Tis diversity means that a

one-size-fits-all teaching model won’t

work. But it is also

an educational resource. In fact, having classes of students

from different backgrounds facilitates a metadisciplinary approach, because it

forces the teacher to diversify learning situations accordingly. All the students

begin their program with strengths or weaknesses

in the areas we have listed

above. Te program of study should

ideally

enable them to continue to

deve-

lop their strengths

and to

overcome

or at least explore their weaknesses.

Te cognitive input that derives from the carrying

out of teaching activities

in classroom environment is fundamental but necessarily limited in

time and

in the amount of information available to the student.

Students’ horizontal

sharing of knowledge (distributed knowledge)—even if only at the level of

self-teaching obtained

through unsupervised direct interaction with relevant

didactic

mediator tools (Rézeau,

2002)—should therefore be planned and

exploited as a didactic

resource. Tis approach

aims not only

to compensate

for the scarcity

of top-down knowledge

that teachers or experts can

transmit

to students,

but also to teach the

students how

to share their own cultural

backgrounds with each other.

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

Te sharing of one’s cultural background implies

not only the application

of previously acquired skills, but also a synthesis and an

explanation so that

the

other members of the working group can

understand them

and integrate

them operatively

in their everyday work. Tis capacity for sharing is in fact

a metadisciplinary competence

of communication design, which is learned

during

practice, through

continuous mediation with

other students (see

section 2.2).

5. Expected

results

A metadisciplinary competence-based didactics has been partially applied in

teaching and curriculum

design

for bachelor’s level programs at the ISIA of

Urbino since its foundation as the Corso Superiore per Arti Grafiche in

1962,

and also in previous experiences, of

which the most famous is the Ulm College

of Design.

believe that the development of

this approach

can increase stu-

dents’ innovative and cognitive potential, increase

the explicit contribution

communication designers to human progress and

knowledge sharing, and open

new professional areas by increasing contacts with new disciplinary domains.

Te reflections described in

this article form the basis for a system of ongoing

evaluation

of the didactic outcome. Tis curriculum has never been applied

fully, but it can be an

important

comparison tool for evaluating the effects

of curriculum

choices in

relation to

the model we

propose. For example, the

mathematical

competence and the scientific method

competence are generally

considered marginal in a

design

curriculum. Moreover, students of different

disciplines are generally only mixed at higher levels of training (master

doctorate). Tis practice

puts students

in a sort of “bubble” that

prevents them

from integrating with other professionals and into professional life.

Obviously

this occurs more significantly in disciplines with a strongly vertical curriculum.

important

next step would be to conduct a longitudinal

research project

on the

students’ educational trajectories and their career paths afer earning

the

bachelor’s, with respect to the full range of variables

introduced in

the

curriculum by this model (not only the competences outline here,

but also

teaching methods, learning styles, the relationships among competences,

teacher profiles, funding, etc.). Gathering

information about the profession

or the disciplinary domain in which the former students work afer obtai-

ning the degree can provide data on the relevance of

the metadisciplinary

approach proposed in this article. Another important step would be to detail,

for each specific case

of curriculum development, the educational objectives

to be achieved in regard to each of the

five competences

have outlined.

Inmaterial 06. Giampiero Dalai, Berta Martini, Luciano Perondi, Monica Tombolato.

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Received 4/10/2018

Accepted 23/11/2018

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.

Giampiero

Dalai

Alpaca Società

Cooperativa

via Giuseppe Garibaldi, 5, 44121

Ferrara FE (Italy)

giampiero.dalai@alpacaprojects.com

Interaction designer with

a background

in visual

communication design. He has been a speaker

several international conferences since 2017, pu-

blishing

articles in

the

field of information design

and the development of interactive communica-

tion artifacts. He focuses on design for education

and design for all. He co-founded Alpaca coopera-

tive in 2016.

Berta Martini

Dipartimento di studi

umanistici, Università degli

studi di Urbino Carlo Bo,

Via Bramante, 17, 61029 Urbino

PU (Italy),

berta.martini@uniurb.it

Full Professor at the University of Urbino where

she coordinates the degree course in Primary

Education Sciences. She is co-director of the

online scientific journal Pedagogia PIU’

didatica.

Teorie e pratiche educative,

and she is

a member

of the scientific boards of

peer review journals

and publishing

series. Her main fields of interest

and research are the processes of

transmission of

knowledge in education contexts and in curricu-

lum studies. Among her numerous publications,

we report Didatiche disciplinari (Pitagora, 2000)

and Pedagogia dei saperi. Problemi, luoghi e pratiche

per l’educazione

(FrancoAngeli, 2011).

Inmaterial 06. Giampiero Dalai, Berta Martini, Luciano Perondi, Monica Tombolato.

Luciano Perondi

Dipartimento Pianificazione e Progetazione in

Ambienti Complessi,

Università IUAV di Venezia, Santa Croce 191

Tolentini, 30135 Venezia VE

(Italy)

lperondi@iuav.it; Tel.:+39-388-1697785

Has been involved

professionally in type and infor-

mation design since 1998.

His main fields

of interest

are writing and reading

process,

the history of

writing and its non linear

use (sinsemia).

From 2003

to 2007 he run the studio Molotro.

From 2007

to 2018 he has been tenured lecturer of

“History of

book” at Isia Urbino.

From 2013

to 2016 he has been the Director of the

same Institute.

Since 2018 he is Associate Professor at IUAV

Venice.

He is partner of the cooperatives

CAST and

Alpaca.

Monica

Tombolato

Dipartimento di studi

umanistici, Università degli

studi di Urbino Carlo Bo,

Via Bramante, 17, 61029 Urbino

PU (Italy),

monica.tombolato@uniurb.it

Received a PhD in

Epistemology and one in Edu-

cation from University of

Urbino. She taught in

secondary school. She is currently a

postdoctoral

fellow and a contract professor for the Pedagogy

of Knowledge Lab

and Physics Education Lab at

the Department of

Humanistic Studies,

University

of Urbino. She is the author of essays and arti-

cles concerning the philosophy and pedagogy of

knowledge.

Inmaterial 06. Beyond the discipline: A metadisciplinary approach for the

didactics of communication design.